Chapters 1 – 5 Political Issues and American Government
This chapter covers Political Issues and American Government.
direct democracy
Citizens themselves vote on all legislation
oligarchy
government by a small group that is not accountable to the citizens (e.g., military officers or landowners)
totalitarianism
Leaders with unlimited power rule for their own benefit
autocracy
government by a single, nonelected leader (e.g., a king, queen, or dictator)
democracy
a system of rule that permits citizens to play a significant part in the governmental process, usually through the election of key public officials.
totalitarian
governments recognize no limits on their authority
authoritarian
governments recognize no limits on their authority, but they are constrained by other institutions, such as business or a church
constitutional governments
limited both in what they can do (substantive limits) and the methods they can employ (procedural limits)
politics
conflict over the leadership, structure, and policies of governments; Who gets what, when and how, the process by which policy decisions are made
representative democracy (republic)
Governments are run by elected officials who represent the interests of their constituents
pluralism
the pattern of struggles among interests; group politics
functions of the American government
Establishing Justice
Insuring Domestic Tranquility
Providing for the Common Defense
Providing for the Common Defense
Promoting the General Welfare
Securing the Blessings of Liberty
liberty
freedom from government control; includes personal freedom and economic freedom
popular sovereignty
ultimate power rests with the citizenry
political culture
commonly shared attitudes, beliefs and core values about how government should operate
ideologies
sets or systems of beliefs that shape the thinking of individuals and how they view the world
political ideology
coherent set of values about the purpose and scope of governments held by groups and individuals
conservative
one who believes that a government is best that governs the least; government should not infringe on individual, personal and economic rights
social conservative
one who believes that traditional moral teaching should be supported and encouraged by the government
liberal
one who seeks to change the political, economic and social status quo to foster the development of equality and the well-being of the individuals
moderate
a person who takes a relatively centralist or middle of the road view on most political issues
libertarians
one who believes in limited government interference (Conservative) but also believes in no governmental interference with personal liberties (Liberal)
statist
one who believes in extensive government control of personal and economic liberties
mercantilism
economic theory designed to increase a nation’s wealth through the development of commercial industry and a favorable trade balance
French and Indian war
1756-1763; Part of larger war between England and France; English fought French in the western frontier and Canada to protect the colonists and determine ownership of land between Allegheny Mountains and Mississippi River
Sugar Act 1764
Enforced a previous tax on molasses; Basically a tax on all the goods he British sold to the Colonists (mercantilism)
Stamp Act 1765
Required printed materials to have a stamp on them; Paper Goods
quartering act 1965
Not a direct tax; Colonists had to provide living quarters for British soldiers; At Colonists expense
first steps toward independence
Stamp act, Townshend acts, Boston massacre, committees of correspondence, tea act
Committees of Correspondence
organizations in each colony to keep other colonies aware of what the British were doing
tea act
New British law that sold tea to colonists loyal to the crown cheaper than the tea the boycotting merchants could sell; result=Boston Tea Party
Boston Tea Party
1773; East India Trade Company had monopoly on importing tea and sought to bypass the merchants by selling it directly to the colonists; Goal was to provoke a government clampdown; Closed the Port of Boston and shut down the Massachusetts government
first continental congress
Colonists reaction to the Intolerable Acts
Issue: the extent of British authority over the Colonists
12 Colonies participated, 56 delegates (Georgia did not)
Held from September 5 to October 26, 1774
shot heard round the world
Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775; 8 Minute Men died; Result: 16,000 British troops laid siege to Boston
second continental congress
May 1775 in Philadelphia; Delegates wanted to give peace another chance; Adopted the Olive Branch Petition on July 5, 1775 asking King to end hostilities
Kings response; Sent 20,000 more troops to stop the rebellion; Delegates formed an army and appointed George Washington as Commander in Chief of the Army
common sense
pamphlet by Thomas Paine; Forceful argument for Independence; Very powerful; Galvanized colonies and public against reconciliation and toward independence
declaration of independence
Philosophical document stating that certain rights were inalienable; Political document explaining that since the king had violated those rights, the colonists had the right to separate; Addressed multiple audiences
articles of confederation
Created a confederation of 13 states; Weak central government; no president, only a legislature; impractical government, giving each state one vote regardless of population, and requiring all 13 to make amendments; Prevented colonies from creating treaties; Lacked an army or navy to protect citizens; No taxing authority; Could make peace with British and appoint officers, coin money, control the post office and negotiate with the Indians
Shay’s rebellion
angry farmers; while off fighting their farms are being taken by the gov because they haven’t been paying while away at war so they decide to burn down the court houses; gets out of control quick and the central gov doesn’t have enough power to put down the rebellion
constitutional convention 1787
13 states invited to fix the article of confederation; Rhode Island does not attend; decide to write the US Constitution instead of fixing the articles; secret; chairman=George Washington; Philadelphia
great compromise
Virginia plan-representation based on population; favors large states (big state plan)
new jersey plan-all states get equal representation (small state plan)
Connecticut plan-equal representation in Senate (2 per state) and representation based on population in the House
3/5 compromise
1790; count all free people and 3/5 of the salves’ vote
US constitution
Came from the people – “We the People”
Purpose – “in order to form a more perfect Union”
Goals: ‘establish justice, Insure domestic Tranquility, Provide for the common defenses,Promote the general Welfare, and Secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity; Formally created new government
goals of the constitution
A central government strong enough to promote commerce and protect property against infringement by the states; Prevent “excessive democracy”; Emphasize ideas that would generate public support; Restrain the federal government from impinging on liberties and property rights
legislature
makes laws
executive
enforces laws
judicial
interprets laws
checks and balances
affects appointments; Judicial review; congressional control over judiciary: jurisdiction, impeachment-house, removal-senate
federalism
Separates power between States and National Government; A system in which the national government shares power with lower levels of government
article 1
Legislative Branch (article)
article 2
executive branch (article)
article 3
judicial branch (article)
article 4
deals with states (article)
article 5
formally amending the constitution (article)
article 6
supremacy clause (article)
article 7
ratification process (article)
legislative branch
Most powerful branch of new government
Two chambers: House and Senate (Bicameral)
Sets the qualifications and terms for both legislative offices
Sets up system of apportionment with census every 10 years
Each has different powers
Each is accountable to a different constituency
Different term lengths (2 yrs. House, 6 yrs. Senate)
Share some powers with the other branches
executive branch
U.S. President
President has the authority to execute the laws of the United States
Sets Term of office at four (4) years
Explains the Electoral College
Lists the qualifications of U.S. President
Provides way to replace the President
Gives Powers of the President (limited)
Requires a State of the Union Address
powers and duties of the president
Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces; Authority to make treaties (must be approved by Senate)
Appointment Power; Ambassadors; Other Public; Ministers; Consuls; Judges of the Supreme Court; All other officers of the United States
judicial branch
Establishes a Supreme Court and determines its jurisdiction
Congress was given the power to create other lower courts
Federal Courts can hear cases arising out of national law
Supreme Court Judges
Appointed by the President
Confirmed by the Senate
Serve for life
ratification
federalists vs. antifederalists
federalists: supported new constitution; argument-its either the new constitution or it’s chaos
antifederalists: did not want the new constitution; arguments- 1. didn’t have the power to do what they did so don’t reward them 2. central gov has too much power 3. no bill of rights 4. article 2-executive branch=king
bill of rights
Limits the National government by making the National government guarantee; rights of the people
Marbury vs. Madison
issue of judicial review
unitary system
dominated by the central or national government, in which lower levels of government have little independent power
supremacy clause
when there is a conflict between federal and state law, federal law prevails
police powers
A given state has the ability to develop and enforce criminal codes, administer health and safety rules, and regulate marriage and divorce laws
10th amendment
“The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.”
reserved powers
powers that are not specifically delegated to the national government or denied to the states, are derived from the Tenth Amendment
concurrent powers
The states and the federal government also share certain powers
Powers denied to the national government
-Congress cannot favor one state over another in regulating commerce
-Congress cannot tax goods exported from one state to another state
-National Government cannot grant titles of nobility
-Employees of government cannot accept salaries or gifts from foreign nations
Powers denied to the state and national governments
-Cannot take arbitrary actions affecting constitutional rights and liberties
-Cannot pass a bill of attainder, a law declaring an act illegal without a judicial trial
-Cannot pass ex post facto laws, a law that punishes you for doing something before it is a criminal act
full faith and credit clause
Article IV, Section 1; states give this to each other’s “public acts, records, and judicial proceedings
compacts
agreements between states to deal with issues that cross state lines, such as environmental concerns and transportation systems
home rule
a guarantee of noninterference in various areas of local affairs
McCulloch v. Maryland
case that greatly expands power of the National Government
Gibbons v. Ogden
case that deals with Interstate Commerce
Barron v. Baltimore
case that deals with limiting the bill of rights
dual federalism
a constitutional interpretation that gave the federal government exclusive control over some issues and states exclusive control over others
Chief Justice Roger B. Taney
emphasizes the authority of states to make laws; Creates Dual Federalism-separate but equal state and national governments; Layered cake symbolism
16 amendment
income tax (amendment)
new deal
Franklin Roosevelt; role of the federal government increased; In 1937, the U.S. Supreme Court issued a series of decisions that expanded the federal government’s power under the commerce clause to protect the rights of workers, extend low-interest credit to farmers and small businesses, and restrict the activities of corporations with dealings in the stock market
cooperative federalism
model in which the various levels of government work together to solve policy problems, often with the federal government providing some portion of the funding, which is spent by the states or localities
grants-in-aid
funds provided by the federal government to a state or local government for a specific purpose
formula grants
grants-in-aid in which a formula is used to determine the amount of federal funds a state or local government will receive
Morton Grodzins’s cake analogy
Dual federalism as layer cake; Cooperative federalism as marble cake
regulated federalism
With increased funding, the federal government demanded higher standards and stricter uses for funds, allocated federal funds by a specific purpose of specific formula
preemption
occurs when state or local actions do not agree with national requirements
unfunded mandates
rules forcing states to spend their own money to comply with federal law
devolution
transferring responsibility from the federal government to state or local governments
new federalism
Efforts by presidents Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan to devolve many policies back to the states
block grants
federal grants-in-aid that allow states considerable discretion in how the funds are spent
general revenue sharing
process by which one unit of government yields a portion of its tax income to another unit of government, according to an established formula
programmatic requests
Formally known as earmarks; Federal funds designated for special projects within a state or congressional district that direct specific exemptions from taxes or mandated fees
judicial federalism
Supreme Court:
-Umpire is settling federalism disputes
-Position had been to expand National Government power
Rehnquist Court:
-Dominated by Conservatives
-U.S. vs. Lopez
Roberts Court:
-Early cases have been to favor the national government, somewhat
-Still too early to decide Roberts Court position
redistributive programs
economic policies designed to control the economy through taxing and spending, with the goal of benefiting the poor
political efficacy
ability to influence government an politics
patriotism
informed and active membership in a political community
political equality
all citizens are the same in the eyes of the law
indigenous people
origin is unclear; were not a homogenous group; may have been as many as 100 million; decimated by early European settlers
majority rule
government can only legitimately operate if 50% or more of its people support its principles
individualism
large emphasis on the individual; have certain unalienable rights
monarchy
ruled by one ruler; king
American dream
belief in the idea of happy life, being successful and making a better life for your children
indirect democracy
people vote for representatives who work on their behalf
republic
government in which the interests of the people are represented by more educated or wealthier citizens who were responsible to those who elected them
puritan
landed in Massachusetts by mistake in 1620; came for religious reasons; strict code of authority and obedience; stressed importance of individualism
aristocracy
government by the few in the service of the many
religious tolerance
when people allow other people to think about god(s) in ways that they do not think are true; tolerate any and all religions
government
the form or system of rule by which a state, community, etc., is governed
citizenship
the character of an individual viewed as a member of society; behavior in terms of the duties, obligations, and functions of a citizen
natural law
doctrine that society should be governed by certain ethical principles that are part of nature and understood by reason
popular consent
government must draw its power from the people; john locke
public policy
the principles, often unwritten, on which social laws are based
social contract
an implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits
unitary
a centralized government system in which lower levels of government have little power independent of the national government
privileges and immunities clause
provision, from article 4, section 2, of the constitution, that a state cannot discriminate against someone from another state or give its own residents special privileges
concurrent powers
authority possessed by both state and national governments (power to levy taxes)
categorical grants
congressional grants given to states and localities on the condition that expenditures be limited to a problem or group specified by the law
block grants
federal grants-in-aid that allow states considerable discretion in how the funds are spent
confederation
a system of gov in which states retain sovereign authority except for the powers expressly delegated to the national gov
bill of attainder
a law that declares a person guilty of a crime without a trial
dual federalism
the system of gov that prevailed in the US from 1789 to 1937 in which most fundamental governmental powers were shared between the federal and state governments
expressed powers
specific powers granted by the constitution to congress and to the president
commerce clause
delegates to congress the power “to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states and with the indian tribes”; this clause was interpreted by the supreme court in favor of national power over the economy
regulated federalism
a form of federalism in which congress imposes legislation on states and localities, requiring them to meet national standards
ex post facto
laws that declare an action to be illegal after it has been committed
implied powers
powers that are not specifically expressed in the constitution but are seen as necessary to allow presidents to exercise their expressed powers
states’ rights
the principle that the states should oppose the increasing authority of the national government; this principle was most popular in the period before the civil war
civil liberties
areas of personal freedom constitutionally protected from government interference
Allgeyer v. Louisiana
Due process of 5th amendment same as due process in the 14th amendment
States had to prove laws were a valid exercise of state power
Needed to prove their laws regulated – health, welfare and public morals
Gitlow v. New York
Gitlow was a Socialist
Printed a manifesto to urge workers to overthrow the government
This was in violation of a New York sedition law
Gitlow was convicted of violating the New York sedition law
If guilty attack the law
Ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court was that Freedom of Speech and Freedom of Press applied to the states due to the 5th and 14th
Doctrine of Incorporation was created with 1st amendment applied to the states
Palko v. Connecticut
the Supreme Court ruled that double jeopardy was not one of the provisions of the Bill of Rights incorporated into the Fourteenth Amendment as a restriction on the powers of the states.
Palko basically left states where they were before the 14th Amendment
However, Supreme Court has made most of the rights of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states especially since 1961
Done through Selective Incorporation
Lemon test
1971, Lemon v. Kurtzman created a three prong test for church and state issue
Activity must have a legitimate secular purpose
Activity must neither advance nor inhibit religion
Activity can not foster excessive government entanglement with religion
the alien and sedition acts
1798, federalist law banning criticism of federalists dominated national government; law expired under Jefferson administration and Jefferson pardoned all convicted under this law
Free Exercise Clause
Can believe and practice religion of one’s choice
Can hold no religious beliefs without consequence
As long as it does not harm others in the name of religion (or lack thereof), it is protected.
Trend appears to be that governmental interests can outweigh free exercise rights especially if religious beliefs are
Held by a minority of people
Unpopular or “suspicious”
However, cannot unfairly target one religion
symbolic speech
symbols or signs as a means of expression; 1st case o recognize this was Stromberg v. California in 1931; protected speech
libel
a written statement made in “reckless disregard of the truth” that is considered damaging to a victim because it is malicious, scandalous, and defamatory
habeas corpus
a court order demanding that an individual in custody be brought into court and shown the cause for detention; article 1
grand jury
jury that determines whether sufficient evidence is available to justify a trial; grand juries do not rule on the accused’s guilt or innocence
double jeopardy
cannot be tried twice for the same crime in the same jurisdiction
exclusionary rule
bars the use of illegally seized evidence in a trial; weeks v. US 1914 established this rule
impartial jury
Cannot exclude Hispanics with a Hispanic defendant
Cannot exclude all African Americans from jury
Cannot exclude prospective jurors based on sex
bill of attainder
a law that declares a person guilty of a crime without trial
clear and present danger test
test to determine whether speech is protected or unprotected, based on its capacity to present a “clear and present danger” to society
speech plus
speech accompanied by conduct such as sit-ins, picketing, and demonstrations. Protection of this form of speech under the 1st amendment is conditional, and restrictions imposed by state or local authorities are acceptable if properly balanced by considerations of public order
slander
and oral statement made in reckless disregard of the truth that is considered damaging to the victim because it is malicious, scandalous, and defamatory.
prior restraint
an effort by governmental agency to block the publication of material it deems libelous or harmful in some other way; censorship; in US, the courts forbid prior restraint except under the most extraordinary circumstances
due process of law
the right of every individual against arbitrary action by national or state governments
Miranda rule
the requirement, articulated by the supreme court in Miranda v. Arizona, that persons under arrest must be informed prior to police interrogation of their rights to remain silent and to have the benefit of legal counsel
eminent domain
the right of the government to take private property for public use
right to privacy
the right to be left alone, which has been interpreted by the supreme court to entail individual access to birth control and abortions
civil rights
individual rights; bill of attainder, habeas corpus, ex post facto; obligation imposed on government to take positive action to protect citizens from any illegal action of government agencies and of other private citizens
suffrage
right to vote
amicus curiae belief
“friend of the court” individuals or groups who are not parties to a lawsuit but who seek to assist the supreme court in reaching a decision by presenting additional beliefs
Jim crow laws
laws enacted by southern states following reconstruction that discriminated against African Americans
equal protection clause
14th amendment; guaranteeing citizens the equal protection of the laws; this clause has been the basis for the civil rights of African americans, women, and other groups
discrimination
use of any unreasonable and unjust criterion of exclusion
strict scrutiny
a test used by the supreme court in racial discrimination cases and other cases involving civil liberties and civil rights that places the burden of proof on the government rather than on the challengers to show that the law in question is constitutional
affirmative action
government policies or programs that seek to redress past injustices against specified groups by making special efforts to provide members of those groups with access to educational and employment opportunities
redlining
a practice of referring a proposed law passed by a legislature to the vote of the electorate for approval or rejection
separate but equal
doctrine that public accommodations could be segregated by race but still be considered equal
intermediate scrutiny
a test used by the supreme court in gender discrimination cases that places the burden of proof partially on the government and partially on the challengers to show that the law in question is unconstitutional
black codes
laws denying rights to free slaves
desegregation
Brown v. Board of Education II (1955)
Ordered segregated schools to be dis-mantled ASAP
Federal Court given duty of enforcement
Southern school districts mostly rejected
Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas
Gov. Faubus had called National Guard to stop African-Americans from enrolling
Federal Courts ordered Arkansas to admit minority students
President Eisenhower sent Federal troops to Little Rock
Little Rock nine were admitted to Central High School
federalist papers
a series of essays written by alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and john jay supporting ratification of the constitution
electoral college
the electors from each state who meet after the popular election to cast ballots for president and vice president
separation of powers
the division of governmental power among several institutions that must cooperate in decision making
elastic clause
article 1, section 8 (necessary and proper clause) enumerates the powers of congress and provides congress with the authority to make all laws necessary and proper to carry them out
delegated powers
constitutional powers that are assigned to one governmental agency but that are exercised by another agency with the express permission of the first
necessary and proper clause
article 1, section 8; provides congress with the authority to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out its expressed powers
inherent powers clause
powers constituted to the president that are not expressed in the constitution but are inferred from it
bicameral
a legislative body having two branches (house and senate)
limited government
a principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution
tyranny
oppressive government that employs cruel and unjust use of power and authority
feudalism
the dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants (villeins or serfs) were obliged to live on their lord’s land and give him homage, labor, and a share of the produce, notionally in exchange for military protection.
divine right
The doctrine that kings and queens have a God-given right to rule and that rebellion against them is a sin
intolerable acts (colonists)/ coercive acts (British)
1774; the American Patriots’ name for a series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 after the Boston Tea party. They were meant to punish the Massachusetts colonists for their defiance in throwing a large tea shipment into Boston harbor; coercive acts; total blockade of boston harbor until paid for tea; denied people of boston many necessary food items
boycott
withdraw from commercial or social relations with (a country, organization, or person) as a punishment or protest
declaration of rights and resolves
First Continental Congress (also known as the Declaration of Colonial Rights, or the Declaration of Rights), was a statement adopted by the First Continental Congress on October 14, 1774, in response to the Intolerable Acts passed by the British Parliament
enumerated powers clause
list of items found in Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution that set forth the authority of Congress.; Congress may exercise the powers that the Constitution grants it, subject to the individual rights listed in the Bill of Rights; the Constitution expresses various other limitations on Congress, such as the one expressed by the Tenth Amendment: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.”
national census
the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population; every 10 years
committee of unfinished business
proposed that a presidential term be for 4 years and they could serve for more than one term
compulsory tithing
income tax paid to the church
extradition
the action of extraditing a person accused or convicted of a crime
nullification
the act of cancelling something; south Carolina claimed states have the rights to declare federal law void
WPA
Works Progress Administration (renamed in 1939 as the Work Projects Administration); the largest and most ambitious American New Deal agency, employing millions of unemployed people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public buildings and roads.
comity clause
article 4, section 2; (also known as the Privileges and Immunities Clause), which ensures that “The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.”
court packing plan
a legislative initiative proposed by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to add more justices to the U.S. Supreme Court
kingdom
a country, state, or territory ruled by a king or queen
great society
a domestic program in the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson that instituted federally sponsored social welfare programs
progressive federalism
Movement that gives state officials significant leeway in acting on issues normally considered national in scope
Supported by Obama Administration
Allows states to be laboratories for the whole country
However, states are going in different directions
doctrine of incorporation
Barron v. Baltimore – Bill of Rights NOT apply to states
14th Amendment passed in 1868
Allgeyer v. Louisiana
Due process of 5th amendment same as due process in the 14th amendment
States had to prove laws were a valid exercise of state power
Needed to prove their laws regulated – health, welfare and public morals
States passed sedition laws restricting freedom of speech
selective incorporation
Palko v. Connecticut (1937): the Supreme Court ruled that double jeopardy was not one of the provisions of the Bill of Rights incorporated into the Fourteenth Amendment as a restriction on the powers of the states.
Palko basically left states where they were before the 14th Amendment
However, Supreme Court has made most of the rights of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states especially since 1961
Done through Selective Incorporation
Process of making most of the Bill of Rights apply to the states
Done through a series of court cases
Those rights that do not apply to the states
Quartering of soldiers, 3rd amendment
Grand jury indictment, 5th amendment
Jury Trial, 7th amendment
Rest of Bill of Rights applies to the states
Doctrine of reverse incorporation
Since Due Process is same in 5th and 14th Amendments
14th requires Equal Protection of the Law by States
States cannot give Due Process without Equal Protection
So the National Government in giving Due Process must also give Equal Protection
Therefore, 14th Amendment means no government entity not just no State even though State is capitalized
Therefore, both State and National governments must give Equal Protection of the Laws
reserve powers clause
found in the 10th Amendment, established that any power not specifically delegated to the national government reverts to the states
establishment clause
the clause in the First Amendment of the US Constitution that prohibits the establishment of religion by Congress
espionage act of 1917
a United States federal law passed on June 15, 1917, shortly after the U.S. entry into World War I; 2,000 plus American convicted under this law; schneck v. US
self incrimination
the act of exposing oneself (generally, by making a statement) “to an accusation or charge of crime; to involve oneself or another [person] in a criminal prosecution or the danger thereof.
fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine
an offspring of the Exclusionary Rule. The exclusionary rule mandates that evidence obtained from an illegal arrest, unreasonable search, or coercive interrogation must be excluded from trial
prohibition
1920-1933; the legal act of prohibiting the manufacture, storage in barrels, bottles, transportation and sale of alcohol including alcoholic beverages. The term can also apply to periods in the histories of countries during which the prohibition of alcohol was enforced.
segregation
the action or state of setting someone or something apart from other people or things or being set apart
political gerrymandering
a practice that attempts to establish a political advantage for a particular party or group by manipulating district boundaries to create partisan advantaged districts
EEOC
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission; The agency that is responsible for enforcing federal laws regarding discrimination against a job applicant or an employee in the United States
sexual discrimination
discrimination in employment and opportunity against a person (typically a woman) on grounds of sex
de facto discrimination
discrimination that was not segregation by law (de jure). Jim Crow Laws, which were enacted in the 1870s, brought legal racial segregation against black Americans residing in the American South
de jure discrimination
enforced by law, while de facto segregation occurs when widespread individual preferences, sometimes backed up with private pressure, lead to separation
title IX
is a comprehensive federal law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any federally funded education program or activity
busing
a form of affirmative action, bus children to schools where they could get a better education
Massachusetts general court
the state legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The name “General Court” is a hold-over from the Colonial Era, when this body also sat in judgment of judicial appeals cases
chaotic period
1781-1789; congress rarely could get requisite numbers of states, nine to even convene to do any business; congress had no power to tax so they could not pay the war debt; Congress was basically ineffective – rarely met and when did rarely did much
No Executive Branch
No National Judicial Branch
States were stabbing each other in the back with foreign negotiations
A state could entered into a treaty with a foreign nation hurting another state
Pennsylvania and Virginia actually went to war over western lands
minority protection
majority rules but laws still protect the minority; normal individual rights as applied to members of racial, ethnic, class, religious, linguistic or sexual minorities; and also the collective rights accorded to minority groups. Minority rights may also apply simply to individual rights of anyone who is not part of a majority decision
personal equality
personal liberty- government provides this according to the 14 amendment; the state of being equal, especially in status, rights, and opportunities
judicial review
the doctrine under which legislative and executive actions are subject to review by the judiciary. A court with judicial review power may invalidate laws and decisions that are incompatible with a higher authority, such as the terms of a written constitution (Chapter 2 question 47)