Animal Specie & Protein Synthesis – Biology
In this Biology chapter we discuss animal specie and protein synthesis.
allopatric speciation
occurs when two populations are geographically isolated from each other. Ex. geographical separation by a catastrophic event.
sympatric speciation
when a population develops members with a genetic difference, which prevents successful reproduction with original species.
adaptive radiation
species will specially adapt to live more effectively in the new environment. Single species can develop into several diverse species over time.
punctuated equilibrium
model that proposes that adaptations of species arise suddenly and rapidly. states that species undergo a long period of equilibrium which at some point is upset by environmental forces causing a short period of quick mutation and change.
Oparin hypothesis
origin of life theory that proposed the earth was made 4.6 million years ago. The earth had a reducing atmosphere, lot of ammonia, hydrogen, methane, and steam. The earth was cooling down and there was a great deal of heat.
cambrian explosion
The sudden appearance of multitudes of differentiated animal forms.
homologous
structures that exist in two different species because they share a common ancestry
analogous
similar because of their common function, although they do not share a common ancestry
convergent evolution
covergence occurs when a particular characteristic evolves in two unrelated populations. ex. birds and mosquitoes.
life history strategies
organisms that are suited to develop in ecosystems; others thrive in an established system. oppportunistic and equilibreal
opportunistic
pioneer species in a new or recently devastated community
equilibreal
those organisms that overtake the opportunistic pioneer species
altruism
social behavior where organisms seem to place the needs of the community over their own need
kin selection
the tendency of an individual to be altruistic toward a close relative, resulting in the preservation of its genetic traits
taxonomy
seeks to organize living things into groups based on morphology or more recently, genetics
binomial nomenclature
two word naming of species using genus and species
seven levels of organisms
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
phylogenetic tree
an evolutionary family tree of species. similar to Linnaues’s taxonomy after evolution.
archaea
a domain classification. archaea are prokatyotic, have unique RNA, and are able to live in the extreme ecosystems on earth. Methane producing organisms and can extreme temperatures
Eubacteria
prokaryotic organisms we call bacteria
eukaryota
the domain that includes all organisms that possess eukaryotic cells. includes four kingdoms; kingdom protista, kingdom fungi, kingdom animalia, and kingdom plantae
protista
photsynthesis, some ingestion and absorption, large eukaryotic cells: algae and protozoa
fungi
absorption, multicellular filaments: mold, mushrooms, yeast, smuts, mildew.
animalia
ingestion, multicellular, specialized eukaryotic motile cells; various worms, sponges, fish , insects, birds, and mammals
plantae
photosynthesis, multicellular, specializiled eukaryotic nonmotile cells; ferns, mosses, woody and non-woody flowering plants
kingdom animalia
there are nine major phyla within the kingdom animalia.
porifera
sponges
cnidaria
jellyfish, sea anemones, hydra, etc.
platyhelminthes
flat worms
nematoda
round worms
mollusca
snails, clams, squid
annelida
segmented worms, earthworms, leeches
arthropoda
crabs, spiders, lobster, millipedes, insects
echinodermata
sea stars, sand dollars
chordata
fish, amphibians, reptiles, reptiles, birds, mammals, lampreys
aganatha
animals with no jaws
gnathostomata
animals with jaws. has six classes
chondrichthyes
fish with a cartilaginous endoskeleton, two chambered heart 5-7 gill pairs, no swim bladder, or lung, internal fertilization
osteichthyes
fish with a bony skeleton, numerous vertebrae, swim bladder, two chambered heart, gills with bony gill arches, and external fertilization. carp, tuna
amphibia
animals with a bony skeleton, usually with four limbs having webbed feet with four toes, cold blooded, large mouth with small teeth, three chambered heart, separate sexes, internal or external fertilization, amniotic egg. salamanders, frogs
reptilia
horny epidermal scales, usually have paired limbs with five toes, bony skeleton, lungs, no gills, most have three chambered heart. snakes lizards alligators
aves
spindle shaped body, long neck, paired limbs, most have wings for flying, four toes, foot. birds ducks, sparrow
mammalia
body covered with hair, glands, teeth, fleshy external ears, usually four limbs, four chambered heart. cows, humans platypus, apes.
Cell
the smallest most basic unit of most living things.s
prokaryotes
type of cell that has no nucleus or any membrane bound organelles
eukaryotic
cells that contain membrane bound intracellular organelles and a nucleus
viruses
smaller than cells. alive or not? can reproduce, consists of RNA and DNA. Live off of and invade living cells
electron microscope
magnified light microscope
cell membrane
cells are enclosed in this, or plasma membrane
nucleus
the center of a cell which contains chromosomes
cytoplasm
area between the nucleus and the cell membrane
cytoplasm organelles
organelles inside of the cytoplasm
cytoskeleton
provides structural support to a cell
ribosomes
site of protein synthesis within a cell.
endoplasmic reticulum
folded membranes responsible for the delivery of lipids and proteins to certain areas within the cytoplasm
golgi apparatus
stores, packs, and ships proteins
secretory vesicles
material packaged by the golgi apparatues or the endoplasmic reticulum.
exocytosis
process where the vesicle membrane fuses with the cell membrane
mitochondria
centers of cellular respiration
cristae
folds of the internal membrane where cellular respiration reactions occur
endosymbiont hypothesis
explanation of how mitochondria, which may have components for life on their own, became integral part of eukaryotic cells
nucleus
organelle surrounded by two lipid bilayer membranes. contains chromosomes, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, and nucleoli
passive transport
substances freely pass across the membrane without the cell expanding energy
facilitated diffusion
does not require energy, but it cannot occur without the help of specialized proteins
active transport
transport requiring energy output from the cell
diffusion
the process whereby molecules and ions flow through the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
osmosis
special diffusion only occurring in with water molecules
facilitated diffusion
another method of transport across the cell membrane. allows for transfer of substances across the cell membrane with the help of specialized proteins
active transport
uses energy to move molecules across a cell membrane against a concentration gradient.
endocytosis
process whereby large molecules are taken up into a pocket of membrane. ex. white blood cells engulfing bacteria
exocytosis
the reverse of endocytosis-exporting substances from the cell
cellular metabolism
energy transformation process. includes photosynthesis, respiration, growth, movement
anabolism
process whereby cells build molecules and store energy (in the form of chemical bonds).
catabolism
the process of breaking down molecules and releasing stored energy
ATP
adenosine triphosphate- energy currency of cellular activity
photosynthesis
conversion of light energy of the sun into chemical energy usable by living things.
chlorophyll
green pigment. area where photosynthesis occures
photolysis
the light reaction of photosynthesis
CO2 fixation
the dark reaction of photosynthesis
aerobic
respiration that requires oxygen
anaerobic
respiration that does not require oxygen
glycolysis
the breaking down of the six carbon sugar into smaller carbon containing molecules
krebs cycle
citric acid cycle that occurs in the mitochondria and breaks down pyruvic acid molecules into CO2 molecules, H+ protons, and 2 ATP molecules. also liberates electrons.
electron transport
captures energy released by the Krebs cycle
cytochromes
pigment molecules
heme
iron containing group
fermentation
also called anaerobic respiration
genomes
sum total of genetic information
gene
a length of DNA that encodes a particular protein
mutation
a genetic mistake
transcription
the formation of an RNA molecule, which corresponds to a gene
mRNA
messenger RNA. a new strand of RNA created from the DNA
post-transcriptional processing
prepares the mRNA for protein synthesis by removing the non-coding sequences.
codon
encoding of a particular amino acid.
translation
2nd phase of protein synthesis where tRNA is introduced, which is the link between nucleotides and amino acids
structural genes
proteins that form organs and structural characteristics
regulatory genes
proteins that determine functional or physiological events such as growth
transduction
the transfer of genetic material (portions of a bacterial chromosome).
transformation
a process whereby bacteria may absorb and incorporate pieces of DNA from their environment
cell division
cell reproduction which centers on the replication and separation of strands of DNA
nucleosomes
chromosomes that are long chains of subunits
histones
a core of small proteins that are wrapped byDNA
chromatin
the combinatioin of histones and DNA
chromatid
two identical stands of chromatin
centromere
place where chromatins attach
homologs
pairs of chromosomes that pair together because of similar size and shape
alleles
different forms of corresponding genes
restriction enzymes
cut sections of DNA molecules by cleaving the sugar phosphate backbone at a particular nucleotide sequence.
cell cycle
sequence of events ending in cell division.
interphase
the period when the cell is active in carrying on its function
gphase
phase where most of the growth of the cell occurs at this time
s phase
cell begins to prepare for cell division by replicating the DNA and proteins necessary to form a new set of chromosomes
mitosis
the process by which a cell distributes its duplicated chromosomes so that each daughter cell has a full set of chromosomes
prophase
the first stage of mitosis. The chromatin condenses into chromosomes within the nucleus and becomes visible through a light microscope.
spindle fibers
fibers where the things begin to extend from the centromere
kinetochore
junction formed when spindle fibers attach to the centromeres
metaphase
the 2nd phase of of mitosis. when the spindle fibers pull the chromosomes into alignment.
anaphase
3rd phase of mitosis. chromatids are separated, chromatids are now chromosomes
telophase
4th phase of mitosis. nuclear membranes form around the chromosomes. chromosomes are no longer available.
cytokinesis
the final stage. produces two separate cells
meiosis
the process of producing four daughter cells each with single unduplicated chromosomes
Haploid
unduplicated chromosomes
diploid
the parent cell of the daughters. and has a normal set of paired chromosomes.
gametes
egg and sperm. reproductive cells
synapse
happens only in meiosis. point where chromosomes pair up.
crossing over
chromatid breaks off and reattaches to another chromatid.
biosynthesis
process of producing chemical compounds by living things.
Enzymes
protein molecules that act as a catalyst for organic reactions.
active site
area where enzyme is uniquely shaped
substrate
the thing that fits within the active site
enzyme-substrate complex
when the substrate is seated in the active site
cofactor
non protein substance that binds to the active site
inorganic cofactor
metals
organic cofactors
also called coenzymes
prosthetic groups
facilitate the enzyme reaction. however are bound to the enzyme
inhibitor
a substance that competes to attach to an enzymes active site
regulation
enzyme control
cohesion
hydrogen bonding between water molecules
cohesion tension process
tension that pulls water through the stem
transpiraton
water that has traveled up through the plant to the leaves that is evaporated
sieve plates
plates that join cells
sporophyte
the diploid generation of plant reproduction
gametophytes
reproductive organs of the sporophyte
sperm
male gametophytes
egg cell
female gamete
fertilize
process of sperm meeting the egg
zygote
the thing that is produced after an egg and sperm meet
embryo
what a zygote turns into inside a seed
alternation generations
identifiable life cycle of plants.
vegatative propagation
asexual reproduction process that only occurs in mitosis. does not involve gametes
hormones
chemicals that regulate growth, development, and function of an organism
tropism
involuntary response of an organism to an external stimulus such as light water, or gravity
photrophic
growth towards light
geotrophic
growth towards the center of the earth
photoperiodicity
periods where plants respond to relative periods of light and darkness
invertebrates
species having no internal backbone
vertebrates
those that have backbones
epithelial tissue
thin layers of cells that line the intestine and covers the inside of the body
connective tissue
covers internal organs and composes ligaments and tendons
muscle tissue
smooth, skeletal, and cardiac. smooth-walls of internal organs and function involuntary. skeletal-attaches bones. cardiac-forms the walls of the heart.
bone tissue
provides support for internal organs, and the ability to move muscles
cartilage tissue
reduces friction between bones and supports and connects them
adipose tissue
found beneath skin and around organs providing cushioning, insulation, and fat storage
nerve tissue
found in the brain spinal cord, nerves, and ganglion. carries electrical impulses
blood tissue
flows through blood vessels and heart
villi
cells lining the small intestine that are protusions
ruminants
animals that consume large amounts of vegetation…cows and deer
cud
chewed vegetation that is regurgitated from the first two stomach chambers
crop
an organ that stores food until it is processed for absorption
respiratory system/gas exchange system
responsible for the intake of gases required by an organism
larynx
windpipe
glottis
opening that allows gases to pass into the two branches known as the bronchi
epiglottis
prevents food from entering the bronchial tubes
musculoskeletal system
provides the body with structure stability, and the ability to move
skeletal muscles
voluntary-they are activated by command from the nervous system
smooth muscle
lines internal organs, protects content and function, generally contracts without conscious intent
cardiac muscle
unique to the heart
nervous system
communication network that connects the entire body of an organism, and provides control over bodily functions and actions
neurons
carry impulses via electrochemical responses through cell bodies and axons
axon
long root-like appendage of the cell
synapses
small spaces where neurons interact
sensory organs
skin, eyes, nose, ears.
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
network of nerves through the body
sensory division
made up of the visceral sensory nerves and somatic sensory nerves
visceral sensory nerves
carry impulses from body organs to CNS
somatic sensory nerves
carry impulses from body surface to the CNS
motor division
made up of the somatic motor nerves and autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic).
somatic motor nerves
carries impulses to skeletal muscle from the CNS
autonomic
made up of the sympatheic and parasympathetic nervous systems
sympathetic NS
carries impulses that stimulate organs
parasympathetic NS
carries impulses back from organs
forebrain
one of three major divisions in the brain that is most anterior (forward) and contains the olfactory lobes, cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland
olfactory lobes
sense of smell
cerebrum
controls sensory and motor responses, memory, speech, and most factors of intelligence
thalamus
integrates senses
hypothalamus
involved in hunger, thirst, blood pressure, body temperature, hostility, pain, pleasure, etc.
pituitary gland
releases various hormones
midbrain
between forebrain and hindbrain and contains the optic lobes
optic lobes
visual center connected to the eyes by the optic nerves
hindbrain
consists of the cerebellum and medulla oblongata
cerebellum
controls balance, equilibrium, and muscle coordination
medulla oblongata
controls involuntary response such as breathing and heartbeat
gray matter
nerve tissue in the brain with a grayish color
myelin sheath
insulation that speeds electrochemical conduction within the axon of the nerve cell
white matter
white tissue in the brain
circulatory system
the conduit for delivering nutrients and gases to all cells for removing waste products from them
open circulatory system
system where blood bathes the internal organs
closed circulatory system
where blood is confined to vessels
vessels include
arteries veins and capillaries
capillaries
tiny vessels that exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen
hemoglobin
thing that carries oxygen containing iron
arteries
larger vessels that carry blood away from the heart
arteriols
small arteries that lead to capillaries
venules
small veins
veins
vessels that carry blood toward the heart
excretory system
responsible for collecting waste materials and transporting them to organs that expel them from the body
kidneys
filter metabolic wastes from the blood
urine
excretion from the kidneys
organ that produces bile from broken down pigments and chemicals
immune system
functions to defend the body from infection by bacteria and viruses.
lymphatic system
the principal infection fighting component of the immune system
lymph
a collection of excess fluid that is absorbed from between cells ito a special system of vessels
lymph nodes
small masses of lymph tissue whose function is to filter lympn and produce lymphocytes
lymphocytes
cells involved in the immune system
b cells
lymphocytes that are produced from the bone marrow
antibodies
things which fight antigens/toxins
antigens
toxins, bacteria, foreign cells
spleen
filters larger volumes of lymph than nodes can handle
tonsils
group of lymph cells connected together and located in the throat
thymus
active only through the teen years fighting infection and producing t cells
t cells
patrol the blood for antigens, but also destroy antigens
homeostasis
when conditions are in acceptable stages
feedback control
process that achieved by sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
feedback response
production of some counterforce that levels the response
hormones
chemicals produced in the endocrine glands of an organism which travel through th circulatory system
mobile receptor mechanism
where hormone control occurs
stimulus
what a hormone responds to
steroid
a type of hormone
hormone receptor complex
a type of protein hormone combines with
a step of reproduction in multicellular animals
gametogenesis
fertilization
second step of reproduction
zygote
the combination of sperm and an egg cell
spermatogenesis
sperm formation
oogenesis
the formation of egg cells in the female reproductive organs
primary oocytes
read page 74
cleavage
a series of cell division
morula
the first few clusters of cells after division
blastula
cell division continues and rearrange themselves to form this
gastrula
sup shape form that turns into a double layer tube
octoderm
outer layer formed by the gastrula
endoderm
the inner layer of the tube which develops into the skin